The Silk Road

Buddhism in Mongolia (Final Project)

2010-03-28T21:40:00.000-07:00

This project is about Buddhism in Mongolia. For instance, I am going to describe a brief and simplified version of the history of Mongolian Buddhism. While my original plan is to focus specifically on the Yuan dynasty, I am also going to cover some pre and post Yuan Mongolian as well as Tibetan history in relation to Buddhism in Mongolia. The purpose of this project is to create the fuller and more complete picture of Mongolian Buddhism.

The popular legend suggests that the Buddhism was introduced to Mongolia during Yuan dynasty, the thirteenth century, when Chinggis Khan have conquered Tibet (http://mongoluls.net/shashin/buddhmongol.shtml). Although, the research have shown that Buddhism was present in Inner Mongolia, as well as in the southern region of what now is Outer Mongolia long before the thirteenth century. For instance, some scholars suggest that the earliest dates of Buddhism in Mongolia goes as far as the first century CE. And by the ninth century there was well established Buddhist schools in Mongolia (Jerryson 13). Therefore, the evidence of the presence of Buddhism in Mongolia before the invasion of Tibet contributes to the conclusion that Buddhism have been establishing its way in Mongolia gradually, and was already wide popular in some regions prior to being officially accepted by the Khan.

Between the seventh and the ninth centuries Tibetan empire was strong and powerful. Tibetan army conquered the cities of Kashgar, Kucha, and Khotan on the West, and on the East the war between Tibetan and Chinese states lasted for nearly two centuries. At some point, in 763 CE, Tibetans conquered the Chinese capital, Chang‘an. They also conquered Tangut people. Many of the conquered people and places were as the result converted to Tibetan Buddhism (http://idp.bl.uk/education/buddhism/tibetan/tibetan.html). Besides, during that time many Tibetan lamas were travelling along the Silk Road, preaching Buddhism. It could be that during that time of Tibetan flourishing when Buddhist traces got into Mongolia.

The remains of Tibetan rule in Central Asia were discovered in two military establishments along the Silk Road. Namely in the town of Miran, and the fort of Mazar-tagh. As well, a great number of Tibetan manuscripts were found in the cave at Dunhuang. All manuscripts are dated from the middle seventh century until the ninth. Some manuscripts on Tibetan and Mongolian were also discovered in Kharakhoto, in what is now Inner Mongolia. Although those manuscripts are dated with later dates, around the thirteenth century (http://idp.bl.uk/educati on/buddhism/tibetan/tibetan.html).

Another reason why it is not easy to establish a specific date for when Buddhism began its establishment in Mongolia is because Mongolian Buddhism neatly syncretized with the local shamanistic tradition, namely Boe, which was flourishing prior to the arrival of Buddhism. Because those two traditions have been mixing together gradually, it is difficult to pin point the precise time of the ‘beginning of Buddhism’ in Mongolia (Jerryson 11).

For this exactly reason of being able to absorb the local deities into Buddhist pantheon, the religion was able to successfully survive and take roots in Mongolia. Besides, the form of Buddhism that appeared as the result of merging Buddhism with Boe, is known as distinctly Mongolian Buddhism (Jerryson 11).

Nevertheless, going back to the popular story of how Tibetan Buddhism was officially recognized and brought to Mongolia during the Yuan dynasty, it is evident that at first Buddhism affected only the upper class and was not much of an influence for the masses for a very long time. So, here is how the story goes.

At first, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, Chinggis Khan conquered Tibet. By that time he already had a reputation for his religious tolerance. Within his realm of ruling there were Nestorian Christians, Muslims, Manicheists, as well as shamans. Although, it is not before somewhat around a half century later that Buddhism officially was established in Mongolian court. According to one source, after Chinggis Khan’s death, his grandson Godan Khan went to Tibet to settle down the rebellion (http://mongoluls.net/shashin/buddhmongol.shtml). Although his trip there was bloody and destructive, he made friends with Sakya Pandita, the patriarch of Sakya Buddhist school in Tibet. The connection between Godan Khan and Sakya Pandita was strong enough for the religious bond to form. Their descendants continued the connection. Godan Khan’s successor Khubilai (Kublai) Khan kept Sakya Pandita’s nephew at the Mongolian court for the political reasons. During that time Phags-Pa (Sakya Pandita’s nephew) converted many people of the court to Buddhism. According to some sources Khubilai Khan is the grandson of Chinggis Khan (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublai_Khan).

According to the other source the story goes a little differently. In this version Godan Khan, who was at the time the Mongol emperor of China, sends his messengers to Tibet with the purpose of finding the most outstanding lama. They comeback with Sakya Pandita, who becomes emperor’s spiritual guide. This story also mentions the miracles performed by Sakya Pandita, as well as relics that were found after his cremation, including Buddhist images that appeared on his bones (http://shugden.tripod.com/sakya.html).

Even though at that time Buddhism considered as the religion of the upper class only, it began to subtly influence thoughts and the culture of many Mongolians. The seeds of Buddhism were already sowed, to the point when after the collapse of Yuan dynasty, and the couple of centuries of a decline, Buddhism was easily revived later on (http://www.innermongolia.org/english/tibetan_buddhism.htm).

Altan Khan is remembered for re-establishing the religious ties between Mongolia and Tibet. In 1569 he invited the 3rd Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso to Tumet (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altan_Khan). It was at that time when Altan Khan gave Sonam Gyatso the title “Dalai Lama“, which is simply the translation of Sonam Gyatso to Mongolian. Gyatso (Tibetan), as well as Dalai (Mongolian) means ocean. From that moment on until the present day, generations of Sonam Gyatso’s reincarnations are known by their Mongolian name. Besides that, the following, the 4th Dalai Lama was actually a Mongolian grandson of Altan Khan, to keep it in a family. That is only one example of Mongolian powerful influence over Tibetan traditions. There are many other examples how both cultures have influenced each other.

Some scholars suggest that the acceptance of Tibetan Buddhism by Mongolians is rooted in their cultural similarities. Both had a lot in common emotionally and psychologically, which made it easier for them to connect, and for Mongolian emperor to understand and accept the religion. Although Mongolians are known for allowing plural religions to flourish under their ruling umbrella, there was some cases of rejecting religious traditions. Or more precisely, not allowing the cultural elements of those traditions that had less in common with Mongolian culture to penetrate the established rules. For instance, the Confucians were not successful in the endeavour of popularizing and spreading the tradition through the Mongolian authority, although they tried… (http://www.innermongolia.org/english/tibetan_buddhism.htm).

Nevertheless, going back in history of Tibetan and Mongolian traditions, even their pre-Buddhist cultures were somewhat similar. Tibetan shamanic Bon tradition which partly syncretized into Tibetan Buddhism is very similar to Mongolian shamanic faith of Boe (http://www.innermongolia.org/english/tibetan_buddhism.htm). That could be another reason that allowed Mongolians to easily connect with Tibetans and their culture.

Sakya Pandita, who originally known as the one who brought Buddhism to Mongolia is also known as the Master of Sakya school of Buddhism. Nevertheless, the second wave of officially recognized Buddhism in Mongolia, that developed later in the 16th century through the effort of Altan Khan, is known as Gelukpa school of Buddhism, the Yellow Sect (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia). Therefore, Mongolian Buddhism although presently is known mainly as Gelukpa, actually represents two main schools of Tibetan Vajrayana. Although, Sonam Gyatso, the 3rd Dalai Lama, who later came to Mongolia by the invitation of Altan Khan, did proclaim himself as the reincarnation of Sakya Pandita, and Altan Khan as the reincarnation of Khubilai Khan. He addressed the public with this news, emphasizing that those two came together again with the purpose of spreading the Buddhism throughout Mongolia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altan_Khan). By making this historical gesture, Sonam Gyatso officially syncretized for Mongolians two politically somewhat distinct schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

Works Cited:

“Altan Khan” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia February 23, 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altan_Khan

“Buddhism in Mongolia” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia March 24, 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia

Jagchid, Sechin. Tibetan Buddhism, The Mongolian Religion http://www.innermongolia.org/english/tibetan_buddhism.htm

Jerryson, Michael K. Mongolian Buddhism: The Rise and Fall of the Sangha. Bangkok: Silkworm Books, 2007.

“Kublai Khan” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia March 29, 2009. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kublai_Khan

Mongoluls.net 2002-2007. http://mongoluls.net/shashin/buddhmongol.shtml

“Sakya Pandita” Sakya Tegchen Choling, NEWSLETTER 82 -- pgs 26-27. March 21, 2010. http://shugden.tripod.com/sakya.html

Sam van Schaik Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism on the Silk Road, International Dunhuang Project (IDP). 2001. International Dunhuang Project (IDP). 11 January 2002. http://idp.bl.uk/education/buddhism/tibetan/tibetan.html

Images (top to bottom):

1. The Manuscript in Mongolian found in Kharakhoto
2. Khubilai (Kublai) Khan
3. Sakya Pandita
4. Altan Khan
5. Black Mahakala, also known as Gombogur in Mongolia. One of the main wrathful protectors recognized by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Very popular in Mongolia, as well as in Tibet

Jews in China

2010-03-21T09:15:00.000-07:00

And Jews were here! As indicated by tombstones and manuscripts discovered in several places along the Silk Road, the mysterious East wasn't hidden from Jews either.

Here is some info about the Jewish community of Kaifeng, in the far East of China. It is considered as the most ancient Jewish community in China, established in the 11th Century. They, unlike the other Jews, maintain the tradition by patrilineal descent: http://drsavta.com/travelkosher/classical-china-tour/

The video about Jews in China: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Brh8AgnW5TA

And this, the wedding of male Jew from Jerusalem and the female Jew of Kaifeng: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Emmy82tFT30&NR=1

Ashkenazi Jews: http://images.google.ca/imgres?imgurl=http://www.taiwandna.com/JewGaul.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.taiwandna.com/JewishPage.htm&usg=__yibvoidLjwhD16XsiIBUFqgPf6Y=&h=579&w=594&sz=63&hl=en&start=21&um=1&itbs=1&tbnid=sxbUZne6vBqt0M:&tbnh=132&tbnw=135&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtombstones%2Bof%2Bjews%2Balong%2Bthe%2Bsilk%2Broad%26start%3D18%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26hs%3DGoj%26sa%3DN%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-GB:official%26ndsp%3D18%26tbs%3Disch:1

The Great Game

2010-03-21T04:39:00.000-07:00

Originally the Great Game began with Britain and Russia, but eventually representatives from a few other countries have joined in. It was a highly competitive game between white males. To simplify the matter, the game was about who will find and bring home more unusual staff. At some point Chinese realized that all those things that have been buried in sands of Taklamakan for ages are considered as priceless treasures on the world scale. At that point they decided to close the access. Nevertheless, all the discoveries those people brought back helped Europeans to create the previously unknown history of mysterious Asians.

Islam Today

2010-02-21T13:45:00.000-08:00

I like the argument of Hirshikind and Mahmood about the limitation of looking at the concept of wearing the veil in black and white, and I would like to comment on that. Perhaps those feminists who are propagating the idea of liberating through the outer appearances are only artificially liberated themselves from their inner prejudices. They obviously have difficulties of noticing the subtle levels of inner liberations. Perhaps for some women who are wearing the headscarf it is an expression of their femininity.

I think instead of forcing masses to wear it or not to wear it, it should be more of a personal choice. Same with abortions or other personal-public dramatic matters. It is important to provide public education on the views for and against those passionate topics, but the 'end result' should be a personal decision based on many individual factors.

For some wearing the short sкirt can be viewed as the submission to patriarchal rule. For others it can be viewed as the expression of their feminine side, and therefore the liberation of their 'inner woman'.

The liberation is very questionable topic in itself. I think the most important is to keep liberating inside through all the levels of imaginary enemies and obstacles. If we believe that the problem exists, it becomes real. To deal with it is important in a balanced way, otherwise the solution or antidote for it becomes a problem in itself. But while we learn to hold the balance it is inevitable to be smashed to the opposite extreme, until we become more skillful in balancing in between the opposing extremes. I noticed it works the same way in private lives or public movements.

Islam and the War in Israel

2010-02-14T17:47:00.000-08:00

Ernst brought up the idea which was so widely advertised through the media that very few people have brain and bravery to question it today. The idea of associating Islam with terrorism. Nevertheless, as people in general tend to fall into extremes and not-so-flexible views, those activists who justify Islam and Muslims today, found another 'enemy' to switch the blame onto, namely the Jews from Israel. I know many Jews who had to move out from Israel because of the worsening of social-political situation there. Some of them served in the army while were there. Because they were so close face to face with the 'enemy', meaning being scared on a daily bases of being killed at any time, they have a very particular attitude towards Arabs in general. Now, those activists who are trying to present Arabs through the media as 'innocent people', are really putting Israelian Jews in unwelcoming position.

My point is that justifying one 'nation' for the price of the other is useless effort. In other words justifying Muslims while blaming Jews in this particular example is not better than calling all Arabs terrorists. People in general rather than looking at a situation as the whole, have tendency to divide and separate, so there is always someone to blame. That kind of attitude never helps to resolve a conflict. It is unfortunate that uncontrollable anger leads to such disasters.

Manichaeism (Group Project)

2010-01-11T20:03:00.000-08:00

Manichaeism is indeed syncretic religion. And from the readings, in Jonas' words it appears that Manichaeism is even the most syncretic, or gnostic religion compere to the other ones. Jones claimes that status to it on the bases that Mani consciously was combining the elements from other religious traditions and merging them all together with the purpose to create the 'ultimate', or the 'universal' religion.

I think that all (or most, as more politically correct term ;) religions are syncretic to some degree, as in order for the belief system to become popular, or institutional, it inevitably have to merge with a local social traditions or/and political laws.

I think the idea that Mani was deliberately mixing the elements of popular and already trusted religions together, without trying to hide that fact, is what separates Manichaeism from other 'syncretic' religions. As most of the religions are taking the ideas from already established traditions, but changing it around a bit to compete with popular movements. From this respect Manichaeism in some sense can be compered to New Age movement. As it seems that New Age tradition is also in a similar way borrowing random elements from many popular religions without masking that fact, and combining it together to create 'something new and more profound'. From the perspective of the followers of an old, established tradition, such borrowing of separate elements is meaningless, because it means using them "out of context". Although, for those who are borrowing, it is meaningful because in their minds they are creating something 'new and better'.

For us, as scholars of religion, recognizing similarities with other traditions might be helpful for the purpose of following the footprints of possible origin of some thoughts and ideas. Or, if not an origin, then a chain of historical development.

When thinking about Manichaeism as a textual tradition, the syncretism as an 'organizing principle' helps us to divide the ideas into 17 or so different languages, and as the result to see where all those compounding elements were taken from.

The images included are: the bottom one is Manichaeistic painting, which looks very similar to a Tibetan Buddhist thangka painting, with Buddha in the middle, and the cross on his left. And the top one is the founder of Manichaeism.

Tang Dynasty: the Reflection on Schafer's Description

2010-01-11T11:22:00.000-08:00

Schafer's "The Glory Tang Days" is written in very romantic language, describing the eighth century China as the most beautiful and magical time. In fact, as he mentioned, his references are taken mostly from Su O's writings. And Su O was describing the time almost a century before his own. And there is a tendency to romanticize the past. It feels like Schafer did the same thing, as his writing reads like a beautiful fairytale. Anyway, there is no way to find out what "actually" was happening during those times, as there is no such thing as more objective or less objective reality. But Schafer's interpretation depicts his fascination and admiration of the story (time and place) he describes. In 'reality' we don't know what actually was happening in China during Tang dynasty. But it feels like Schafer was describing his own inner beautiful world rather than whatever he attempted to describe.

Buddhism: The Goal or the Path?

2009-11-14T10:03:00.000-08:00

In The Parable of the Burning House, to get his children out of the burning house the rich man promised them rare toys which are better than those they already had. In other words the man used a manipulation, a mind game, and children's attachment to toys in order to turn their attention to another desire.

The same idea with pure lands, nirvana, etc. Perhaps such 'pure places', or 'heavens' are promised in order to help people develop flexibility and let go of narrow mindedness. Therefore, from this perspective the promise of nirvana, or 'nirvana' itself could be used as the means, not the end. Therefore, the path itself is important and not as much the goal.

Evidently that what Mahayana view is about. It is not where you will end up later, but what you are now. Apparently that what the selfless compassion and unconditional love is.

Zoroastrian Anscient Texts

2009-11-11T12:55:00.000-08:00

While reading the translation of an early Zoroastrian texts I came across some key terms which has analogies in other religions. For example the idea of the Cow, who seems to be representing something similar to the Holy Spirit in Christianity. The Cow in Zoroastrian ancient text is addressed from the capital letter; it is in the company of her fashioner and the Ahura Mazda, all of whom are conversing with each other; Zarathustra is considered to be the soul of the Cow. All signs points towards the spiritual nature of that Cow. Perhaps the roots of the idea of a spiritual cow in Hinduism at some point intersect with this Zoroastrian Cow.

Another example of interreligious interconnectedness is the writing about dewas and asuras. The asuras in Zoroastrianism is considered of a higher status than dewas, as oppose to their Buddhist status. Nevertheless, the qualities of Zoroastrian asuras, who considers gods, are very similar to the qualities of Buddhist asuras, where they are sort of demons, or sometimes called semi-gods. For instance, the asura's qualities described in Zoroastrian ancient texts depicted them as vindictive, revengeful, who often give a violent lessons to people in order to punish them for disobedience. In fact, in Buddhism asuras do exactly the same, that is why they are called semi-gods, as they are not in complete bliss or unity with themselves, from the Buddhist perspective that is why they are competitive, and tend to pick up fights with dewas, who are above them in the status of spiritual hierarchy. Dewas in Buddhism are simply feeling too good to be interested in punishments, controlling other beings, etc. Unfortunately, there was no clear description of dewas' qualities in that Zoroastrian text, which would indicate what Zoroastrian dewas tend to do, how they like to appear, and why they considered as demons in Zoroastrianism. I am sure there is a parallel between the opposing views of two religions, which can be understood deeper with farther research on this topic.

What is Religion?

2009-10-26T11:51:00.000-07:00

Some people see religion as private, intellectual activity, and others as social, bonding factor. Early religious study scholars, being under the influence of dominating Christianity, used to look at other religions from the perspective of the rigid unilineal evolutionist approach. They saw the inevitable movement from savagery to barbarism, to civilization. Therefore, religious believes were an important indicator of the evolutionary level of a society. In other words the general assumption was the inevitable progression from primitive superstition to more sophisticated and monotheistic view.

Later studies analyzed religious phenomenon from various perspectives, such as historicist, functionalist, psychological, structuralist, ecological, cross-cultural, cognitive, and symbolic. Modern scholars, such as Partridge, identified other groups as religious, which have not been traditionally considered as such before. For example the psychedelic users, cyberspirituality, extraterrestrial UFO believers, Occultic Western Demonology, and Eschatological apocalypcists, to name a few. I agree with Smith's (1962) view that when people are saying "I am not religious, I am spiritual", it is more than likely that they are participating in a different and probably competing tradition, requiring devices to distinguish and authorize it.

Sogdians, Their History and Culture

2009-10-19T20:59:00.000-07:00

Sogdians originated in the area where presently Ukraine is located. According to linguistic history they are the originators of Indo-European languages. After Alexander the Great invaded the area, many of them moved South-East, and settled around present Southern Uzbekistan and Western Tajikistan. Their capital was the city of Samarkand. During that time it considered the Chinese territory.

Sogdians adapted quickly to Chinese customs. Some of them even changed their last name to Chinese "An", the most common one. They played an important role in commerce on the Silk Road between the fourth and ninths centuries CE. Sogdians merchants travelled across Eurasia to do business of making and selling things. As well, Sogdians played a major role in transmitting religions such as Manicheism, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism eastwards along the Silk Road.

It was very florishing culture, even though they never invented their own empire. The impressive architecture, art sculptures and paintings were found in the area many centuries later can tell us about Sogdian cultural sophistication. They also invented many things, such as paper printing machine, which did not exist in Europe before then.

Below is the link to the article about Sogdian art:
http://weecheng.com/silk/tajik/sogdian.htm

Hou Hanshu

2009-10-10T22:44:00.000-07:00

Hou Hanshu can be easily classified as the historical writing, as it is full of heroes, as well as descriptions of wars with precise dates. The people described in the text are very warlike. Their strength is measured by the size of the territory they inhibit.

An Overview of the Silk Road During Ancient Times

2009-09-21T13:18:00.000-07:00

The Silk Road is the path through the desert between Europe and China, located South of Russia, and North of Tibet. The desert through which the road is laid is protected by mountains from all directions, except from the East. The Silk Road began to be used a lot during the Han dynasty, around 206 BC-AD 220. It was used to transport the Chinese silks, and other goods such as satins, musk, rubies, diamonds, pearls and rhubarb from China to Europe, and other places. In the early days mostly missionaries of various faiths used to travel the Silk Roads, but from the nineteenth century the travellers included explorers, geographers and archaeologists.

Its romantic name, Silk Road, or Seidenstrasse, was created only in 1877 by the German explorer and geographer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen. It was an extremely dangerous travel which sometimes could take several months or longer to accomplish. Many people could not survive the difficulties of travel, and occasionally the bones of a whole caravan can be found in the middle of a desert. The bones of those who lost the direction on the way, and ran out of water and provision. The shortcut through the mountains on the West of the desert also was dangerous, because besides natural difficulties of climing the rocks, up until the nineteenth century it was possible for travellers to be killed by bandits.

So many legends were created over time about the Silk Road, where it is depicted as dangerous, misterious, but intriguingly romantic path. According to traditional history, the Buddhism was brought to China from India through the Silk Road.